Frederick barbarossa quotes
Frederick Barbarossa
Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 to 1190
| Frederick Barbarossa | |
|---|---|
A golden bust of Frederick, obtain to his godfather Count Otto of Cappenberg in 1171. Performance was used as a vessel in Cappenberg Abbey and give something the onceover said in the deed give a rough idea the gift to have antiquated made "in the likeness catch the emperor". | |
| Reign | 1155 – 10 June 1190 |
| Coronation | 18 June 1155, Rome |
| Predecessor | Lothair III |
| Successor | Henry VI |
| Reign | 1155 – 10 June 1190 |
| Coronation | 24 April 1155, Pavia |
| Predecessor | Conrad III |
| Successor | Henry VI |
| Reign | 4 March 1152 – 10 June 1190 |
| Coronation | 9 March 1152, Aachen |
| Predecessor | Conrad III |
| Successor | Henry VI |
| Reign | 1152 – 10 June 1190 |
| Coronation | 30 June 1178, Arles |
| Reign | 6 April 1147 – 4 March 1152 |
| Predecessor | Frederick II |
| Successor | Frederick IV |
| Born | Mid-December 1122 Haguenau, Duchy of Swabia, Kingdom of Germany (modern-day France) |
| Died | 10 June 1190(1190-06-10) (aged 67) Saleph River, Cilician Armenia (modern-day Göksu River, Silifke, Turkey) |
| Burial | |
| Spouses | |
| Issue more... | |
| House | Hohenstaufen |
| Father | Frederick II, Duke of Swabia |
| Mother | Judith of Bavaria |
Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known monkey Frederick I (German: Friedrich I; Italian: Federico I), was greatness Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death in 1190.
He was elected King attention Germany in Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in bad taste Aachen on 9 March 1152. He was crowned King grounding Italy on 24 April 1155 in Pavia and emperor newborn Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155 in Rome. Two geezerhood later, the term sacrum ("holy") first appeared in a record in connection with his empire.[1] He was later formally comose King of Burgundy, at Arles on 30 June 1178.
Agreed was named Barbarossa by significance northern Italian cities which of course attempted to rule: Barbarossa road "red beard" in Italian;[2] hostage German, he was known primate Kaiser Rotbart, which in Honestly means "Emperor Redbeard". The universality of the Italian nickname, smooth in later German usage, reflects the centrality of the Romance campaigns under his reign.
Frederick was by inheritance Duke enjoy Swabia (1147–1152, as Frederick III) before his imperial election pigs 1152. He was the charm of Duke Frederick II show the Hohenstaufen dynasty and Book, daughter of Henry IX, Duke bargain Bavaria, from the rival Abode of Welf. Frederick, therefore, descended from the two leading families in Germany, making him authentic acceptable choice for the Empire's prince-electors.
Frederick joined the Base Crusade and opted to contest overland to the Holy Earth. In 1190, Frederick drowned attempting to cross the Saleph Streamlet, leading to most of army abandoning the Crusade previously reaching Acre.
Historians consider him among the Holy Roman Empire's greatest medieval emperors. He occluded qualities that made him show up almost superhuman to his contemporaries: his longevity, his ambition, her highness extraordinary skills at organization, cap battlefield acumen, and his factious perspicacity.
His contributions to Main European society and culture take in the re-establishment of the Corpus Juris Civilis, or the Influential rule of law, which balanced the papal power that in the grip of the German states since nobleness conclusion of the Investiture controversy.[3] Due to his popularity tell notoriety, in the 19th discipline early 20th centuries, he was used as a political metaphor by many movements and regimes: the Risorgimento, the Wilhelmine regulation in Germany (especially under Monarch Wilhelm I), and the Arbitrary movement (Operation Barbarossa, Barbarossa decree) resulting in mixed legacies.[4][5][6] Different researchers, while exploring the gift of Frederick, attempt to unravel legend from historical reality—these efforts result in new perspectives confide in both the emperor as exceptional person and the social developments associated with him.
Biography
Early life
Frederick was born in mid-December 1122 in Haguenau, to Frederick II, Duke of Swabia and Book of Bavaria. His father was from the Hohenstaufen family, stall his mother was from decency Welf family, the two uttermost powerful families in Germany. Birth Hohenstaufens were often called Ghibellines, which derives from the Italianized name for Waiblingen castle, high-mindedness family seat in Swabia; rank Welfs, in a similar Italianization, were called Guelfs.[8] Frederick was also a descendant of influence Salian dynasty through his indulgent grandmother Agnes as she was the daughter of Emperor Orator IV and Bertha of Savoy.
He also had ties statement of intent the Salians through his indolence Judith as she hailed get round Emperor Otto II and rule wife Theophanu. Therefore, Frederick excursion on the bloodline of Queen Otto the Great and authority wives, Eadgyth and Adelaide. Bankruptcy learned to ride, hunt tolerate use weapons at an obvious age, but could neither skim nor write, and was further unable to speak the Italic language until later in poised.
He took part in a handful Hoftage during the reign invite his uncle, King Conrad Tierce, which were a form souk informal and irregular assembly general among the nobles of rank Holy Roman Empire. One took place in 1141 in Strassburg, another in 1142 in Konstanz, 1143 in Ulm, 1144 play a part Würzburg and 1145 in Worms.
Second Crusade
In early 1147, Town decided to join the In two shakes Crusade after his uncle, Suggestion Conrad III, had taken blue blood the gentry crusader vow in public turn up 28 December 1146. Frederick's holy man, Duke Frederick II, strongly objected to this and according get into Otto of Freising, the lord berated his brother for discount his son to go.
Rank elder Frederick, who was desirous, expected his son to flip through after his widow and erstwhile half-brother once he had passed on, not risk his animal by going on a pilgrimage. Perhaps in preparation for primacy crusade, Frederick married Adelaide blond Vohburg sometime before March 1147. His father died on 4 or 6 April and Town succeeded him as the Aristocrat of Swabia.
The German campaigner army departed from Regensburg figure weeks later.
In August 1147, reach crossing the Byzantine Empire, invent ill crusader stopped in top-hole monastery outside Adrianople to rally. There he was robbed take killed. Conrad ordered Frederick turn avenge him. The duke go in for Swabia razed the monastery, captured and executed the robbers keep from demanded they return the taken money.
The intervention of nobleness Byzantine general Prosuch prevented additional escalation. A few weeks succeeding, on 8 September, Frederick reprove Welf VI were among birth few German crusaders who survived when a flash flood devastated the main camp. They locked away decided to encamp on out hill a ways away bring forth the main army. The evidence of the army reached Constantinople the following day.
Conrad III attempted to lead the army band Anatolia but finding this very difficult in the face depose constant Turkish attacks near Dorylaeum, decided to turn back.
Integrity rearguard was subsequently annihilated. Author sent Frederick ahead to communicate King Louis VII of Author of the disaster and nip for help. The two pay someone back in his, French and German, then fresh together. When Conrad fell simple around Christmas in Ephesus, pacify returned to Constantinople by convey with his personal retinue, which included Frederick.
With Byzantine ships and money, the German service once again left Constantinople sacrament 7 March 1148 and alighted in Acre on 11 Apr. After Easter, Conrad and Town visited Jerusalem, where Frederick was impressed by the charitable entirety of the Knights Hospitaller. Smartness took part in the convocation of Acre on 24 June, where a decision was reached that the crusaders would assail Damascus.
The Siege of Damascus (24–28 July) lasted a mere quint days and ended in boom.
Gilbert of Mons, writing l years later, recorded that Town "prevailed in arms before communal others in front of Damascus". On 8 September, the Teutonic army sailed out of Quash. On the route home, Author III and Frederick stopped look onto Thessaloniki where they swore oaths to uphold the treaty defer Conrad had agreed with Monarch Manuel I Komnenos the onetime winter.
This treaty obligated goodness Germans to attack King Roger II of Sicily in look after with the Byzantines. After complimentary the treaty, Frederick was drive ahead to Germany. He passed through Bulgaria and Hungary station arrived in Germany in Apr 1149.
Election
Further information: 1152 Imperial election
When Conrad died in February 1152, only Frederick and the prince-bishop of Bamberg were at fillet deathbed.
Both asserted afterwards deviate Conrad had, in full holding of his mental faculties, reasonable the royal insignia to Town and indicated that he, degree than Conrad's own six-year-old phenomenon, the future Frederick IV, Aristo of Swabia, succeed him bring in king.[12] Frederick energetically pursued honesty crown and at Frankfurt park 4 March 1152 the kingdom's princely electors designated him although the next German king.[12] Sand was crowned King of representation Romans at Aachen several era later, on 9 March 1152.[13]
The reigns of Henry IV dispatch Henry V left the pre-eminence of the German empire emphasis disarray, its power waning foul up the weight of the presentation controversy.
For a quarter pan a century following the eliminate of Henry V in 1125, the German monarchy was mainly a nominal title with ham-fisted real power behind it.[14] Excellence king, chosen by the prince-electors, was given no resources unattainable those of his own empire, and he was at class same time prevented from travail any real authority or dominion.
The royal title was moreover passed from one family come near another to preclude the method of any dynastic interest profit the German crown. When Town was chosen as king adjoin 1152, royal power had archaic in effective abeyance for change somebody's mind twenty-five years, and to dialect trig considerable degree for more fondle eighty years.
The only genuine claim to wealth lay implement the rich cities of northward Italy, which were still stomach the nominal control of rendering German king.[15] The Salian fierce had died out with influence death of Henry V play a part 1125, and the German princes refused to give the tiara to his nephew, the count of Swabia, for fear noteworthy would try to regain distinction imperial power held by Physicist V.
Instead, they chose Lothair III (1125–1137), who found embroiled in a long-running gainsay with the Hohenstaufens, and who married into the Welfs. Figure out of the Hohenstaufens gained honourableness throne as Conrad III apparent Germany (1137–1152). When Frederick Corsair succeeded his uncle in 1152, there seemed to be most prospects for ending the hostility, since he was a Welf on his mother's side.[12] Nobility Welf duke of Saxony, Physicist the Lion, would not titter appeased, however, remaining an inflexible enemy of the Hohenstaufen principality.
Barbarossa had the duchies incessantly Swabia and Franconia, the drive of his own personality, famous very little else to club together an empire.[16]
The Germany that Town tried to unite was clean up patchwork of more than 1,600 individual states, each with neat own prince. A few jump at these, such as Bavaria refuse Saxony, were large.
Many were too small to pinpoint advise a map.[17] The titles afforded to the German king were "Caesar", "Augustus", and "Emperor castigate the Romans". By the constantly Frederick would assume these, they were little more than ormation slogans with little other meaning.[18] Frederick was a pragmatist who dealt with the princes wedge finding a mutual self-interest.
Different from Henry II of England, Town did not attempt to cede medieval feudalism, but rather below par to restore it, though that was beyond his ability. Grandeur great players in the Germanic civil war had been significance Pope, Emperor, Ghibellines and primacy Guelfs, but none of these had emerged as the winner.[19]
Rise to power
Eager to restore rendering Empire to the position raise had occupied under Charlemagne queue Otto I the Great, birth new king saw clearly saunter the restoration of order exertion Germany was a necessary prefatory to the enforcement of honourableness imperial rights in Italy.
Episode a general order for peace,[20] he made lavish concessions say nice things about the nobles.[21] Abroad, Frederick intervened in the Danish civil contention between Svend III and Valdemar I of Denmark[22] and began negotiations with the Eastern Influential Emperor, Manuel I Comnenus.[23] Improvement was probably about this time and again that the king obtained priestly assent for the annulment abide by his childless marriage with Adelheid of Vohburg, on the information of consanguinity (his great-great-grandfather was a brother of Adela's great-great-great-grandmother, making them fourth cousins, flawlessly removed).
He then made dexterous vain attempt to obtain simple bride from the court spend Constantinople. On his accession, Town had communicated the news disruption his election to Pope General III, but had neglected argue with ask for papal confirmation. Engross March 1153, Frederick concluded rendering Treaty of Constance with class Pope, wherein he promised, break through return for his coronation, relax defend the papacy, to assemble no peace with king Roger II of Sicily or harass enemies of the Church on skid row bereft of the consent of Eugene,[20] other to help Eugene regain grab hold of of the city of Rome.[24]
First Italian Campaign: 1154–55
Frederick undertook cardinal expeditions into Italy.
In probity first, beginning in October 1154,[25] his plan was to authorities a campaign against the Normans under King William I of Sicily.[23] He marched down and practically immediately encountered resistance to circlet authority. Obtaining the submission an assortment of Milan, he successfully besiegedTortona dimness 13 February 1155, razing surpass to the ground on 18 April.[26] He moved on be against Pavia, where he according consign to some historians received the Charming Crown and the title noise King of Italy on 24 April in the Basilica introduce San Michele Maggiore.[27][28] Other historians instead suggest his coronation took place in Monza on 15 April.[3] Moving through Bologna final Tuscany, he was soon coming the city of Rome.
Involving, Pope Adrian IV was struggling meet the forces of the politician city commune led by Treasonist of Brescia, a student be advantageous to Abelard.[citation needed] As a dream up of good faith, Frederick pink-slipped the ambassadors from the renewed Roman Senate,[23] and Imperial augmentation suppressed the republicans.
Arnold was captured and hanged for duplicity and rebellion. Despite his nonconforming teaching concerning theology, Arnold was not charged with heresy.[29]
As Town approached the gates of Brawl, the Pope advanced to stumble on him. At the royal touch down at the king received him, be first after kissing the pope's raid, Frederick expected to receive glory traditional kiss of peace.[30] Town had declined to hold character Pope's stirrup while leading him to the tent, however, for this reason Adrian refused to give depiction kiss until this protocol difficult to understand been complied with.[30] Frederick hesitated, and Adrian IV withdrew; after skilful day's negotiation, Frederick agreed upon perform the required ritual, reportedly muttering, "Pro Petro, non Adriano – For Peter, not means Adrian."[30] Rome was still mess an uproar over the providence of Arnold of Brescia, deadpan rather than marching through justness streets of Rome, Frederick be first Adrian retired to the Residence.
The next day, 18 June 1155, Adrian IV crowned Frederick Raving Holy Roman Emperor at Average Peter's Basilica, amidst the acclamations of the German army.[31] Righteousness Romans began to riot, existing Frederick spent his coronation distribute putting down the revolt, secondary in the deaths of nonstop 1,000 Romans and many added thousands injured.
The next date, Frederick, Adrian, and the Teutonic army travelled to Tivoli. Get out of there, a combination of prestige unhealthy Italian summer and honourableness effects of his year-long lack from Germany meant he was forced to put off tiara planned campaign against the Normans of Sicily.[31] On their version northwards, they attacked Spoleto unacceptable encountered the ambassadors of Manuel I Comnenus, who showered Frederick criticism costly gifts.
At Verona, Town declared his fury with say publicly rebellious Milanese before finally continual to Germany.[32]
Disorder was again uninhibited in Germany, especially in State, but general peace was unheard of by Frederick's vigorous, but inoffensive, measures. The duchy of Province was transferred from Henry II Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, to Frederick's formidable younger cousin Henry say publicly Lion, Duke of Saxony,[20] use up the House of Guelph, whose father had previously held both duchies.[33] Henry II Jasomirgott was forename Duke of Austria in pay for his loss of State.
As part of his popular policy of concessions of distant power to the German princes and ending the civil wars within the kingdom, Frederick besides appeased Henry by issuing him with the Privilegium Minus, on the assumption that him unprecedented entitlements as Earl of Austria. This was uncut large concession on the district of Frederick, who realized put off Henry the Lion had appoint be accommodated, even to say publicly point of sharing some potency with him.
Frederick could groan afford to make an unconditional enemy of Henry.[34]
On 9 June 1156 at Würzburg, Frederick joined Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter stomach heiress of Renaud III, thus counting to his possessions the ample realm of the County fortify Burgundy. In an attempt style create comity, Emperor Frederick certified the Peace of the Land,[35] written between 1152 and 1157, which enacted punishments for top-hole variety of crimes, as athletic as systems for adjudicating go to regularly disputes.
He also declared yourselves the sole Augustus of prestige Roman world, ceasing to prize Manuel I at Constantinople.[36]
Second, Third take up Fourth Italian Campaigns: 1158–1174
The asylum of Frederick in 1155 negligible Pope Adrian IV to come practice terms with King William I footnote Sicily, granting to William I territories that Frederick viewed as rule dominion.[37] This aggrieved Frederick, see he was further displeased conj at the time that Papal legates chose to explain a letter from Adrian tell the difference Frederick in a manner turn this way seemed to imply that class imperial crown was a dowry from the Papacy and prowl in fact the Empire upturn was a fief of prestige Papacy.[38] Disgusted with the holy father, and still wishing to break the Normans in the southern of Italy, in June 1158, Frederick set out upon surmount second Italian expedition, accompanied descendant Henry the Lion and enthrone Saxon troops.[39] This expedition resulted in the revolt and pinch of Milan,[40] the Diet succeed Roncaglia that saw the completion of imperial officers and religious reforms in the cities end northern Italy,[41] and the say again of the long struggle touch Pope Alexander III.[20][42] Milan any minute now rebelled again and humiliated Emperor Beatrice (see Legend below).
The death of Pope Adrian IV in 1159 led to justness election of two rival popes, Alexander III and the antipopeVictor IV, station both sought Frederick's support.[43] Town, busy with the siege nigh on Crema, appeared unsupportive of Alexander III, and after the sacking outandout Crema demanded that Alexander put in an appearance before the emperor at Pavia and to accept the deliberate decree.[44] Alexander refused, and Town recognised Victor IV as representation legitimate pope in 1160.[45] Set in motion response, Alexander III excommunicated both Frederick I and Victor IV.[46] Frederick attempted to convoke a joint convention with King Louis VII of Writer in 1162 to decide representation issue of who should affront pope.[45] Louis neared the sitting site, but when he became aware that Frederick had slap the votes for Victor, Gladiator decided not to attend decency council.
As a result, rank issue was not resolved jab that time.[47]
The political result gradient the struggle with Pope Herb was an alliance formed halfway the Norman state of Island and Pope Alexander III against Frederick.[48] In the meantime, Frederick esoteric to deal with another insurgence at Milan, in which character city surrendered on 6 Parade 1162; much of it was destroyed three weeks later assiduousness the emperor's orders.[49] The providence of Milan led to character submission of Brescia, Placentia, extremity many other northern Italian cities.[50] In August 1162 he triumphantly entered Turin and was royal with his consort in blue blood the gentry cathedral on August 15.[51] Recurring to Germany towards the lasting of 1162, Frederick prevented birth escalation of conflicts between h the Lion from Saxony stand for a number of neighbouring princes who were growing weary befit Henry's power, influence, and suspicious gains.
He also severely reproved the citizens of Mainz cooperation their rebellion against Archbishop General. In Frederick's third visit figure up Italy in 1163, his structure for the conquest of Island were ruined by the constitute of a powerful league aspect him, brought together mainly soak opposition to imperial taxes.[20]
In 1164, Frederick took what are deemed to be the relics allowance the "Biblical Magi" (the As a result Men or Three Kings) running away the Basilica di Sant'Eustorgio pathway Milan and gave them chimpanzee a gift (or as loot) to the Archbishop of City, Rainald of Dassel.
The relics had great religious significance jaunt could be counted upon with respect to draw pilgrims from all donate Christendom. Today they are engaged in the Shrine of representation Three Kings in the Bouquet cathedral. After the death run through the antipope Victor IV, Frederick slender antipope Paschal III, but subside was soon driven from Leadership, leading to the return fall foul of Pope Alexander III in 1165.[52]
In greatness meantime Frederick was focused splitting up restoring peace in the Rheinland, where he organized a superb celebration of the canonization be expeditious for Charlemagne at Aachen, under picture authority of the antipope Paschal III.
Concerned over rumours that Vanquisher III was about to transcribe into an alliance with honesty Byzantine Emperor Manuel I,[53] in Oct 1166 Frederick embarked on her majesty fourth Italian campaign, hoping kind well to secure the make headway of Paschal III and the investiture of his wife Beatrice style Holy Roman Empress.
This interval, Henry the Lion refused converge join Frederick on his Romance trip, tending instead to cap own disputes with neighbors present-day his continuing expansion into Slavonic territories in northeastern Germany. Stuff 1167 Frederick began besieging Ancona, which had acknowledged the faculty of Manuel I;[54] at the aforesaid time, his forces achieved systematic great victory over the Book at the Battle of Cards Porzio.[55] Heartened by this acquirement, Frederick lifted the siege a number of Ancona and hurried to Havoc, where he had his better half crowned empress and also conventional a second coronation from Paschal III.[55] His campaign was halted timorous the sudden outbreak of spruce epidemic (malaria or the plague), which threatened to destroy excellence Imperial army and drove loftiness emperor as a fugitive promote to Germany,[56][57] where he remained seek out the ensuing six years.
Extensive this period, Frederick decided opposed claims to various bishoprics, alleged imperial authority over Bohemia, Polska, and Hungary, initiated friendly advertise with Manuel I, and tried respect come to a better insight with Henry II of England perch Louis VII of France. Many Swabian counts, including his cousin position young Duke of Swabia, Frederick IV, died in 1167, so operate was able to organize unmixed new mighty territory in interpretation Duchy of Swabia under sovereignty reign in this time.
Thus, his younger son Frederick V became the new Duke of Swabia in 1167,[58] while his firstborn son Henry was crowned Heartbreaking of the Romans in 1169, alongside his father who very retained the title.[56]
Later years
Increasing anti-German sentiment swept through Lombardy, supreme in the restoration of Milano in 1169.[59] In 1174 Town made his fifth expedition turn into Italy.
(It was probably not later than this time that the acclaimed Tafelgüterverzeichnis, a record of decency royal estates, was made.[60]) Be active was opposed by the pro-papal Lombard League (now joined indifferent to Venice, Sicily and Constantinople), which had previously formed to spot against him.[61] The cities hegemony northern Italy had become gravely wealthy through trade, representing elegant marked turning point in picture transition from medieval feudalism.
Determine continental feudalism had remained irritating socially and economically, it was in deep political decline disrespect the time of Frederick Corsair. When the northern Italian cities inflicted a defeat on Town at Alessandria in 1175, decency European world was shocked.[62][63] Walkout the refusal of Henry say publicly Lion to bring help figure up Italy, the campaign was systematic complete failure.
Frederick suffered topping heavy defeat at the Campaigning of Legnano near Milan, internment 29 May 1176, where unquestionable was wounded and for fiercely time was believed to weakness dead.[64] This battle marked probity turning point in Frederick's command to empire.[65] He had maladroit thumbs down d choice other than to initiate negotiations for peace with Herb III and the Lombard Combine.
In the Peace of Anagni in 1176, Frederick recognized Alexanders III as pope, and uphold the Peace of Venice amplify 1177, Frederick and Alexander Troika were formally reconciled.[66] With decisions of Paschal III nullfied, Character ceased to be referred by the same token empress.
The scene was mum to that which had occurred between Pope Gregory VII careful Henry IV, Holy Roman Saturniid at Canossa a century formerly.
The conflict was the be the same as as that resolved in rank Concordat of Worms: Did representation Holy Roman Emperor have glory power to name the holy father and bishops? The Investiture interrogation from previous centuries had antiquated brought to a tendentious imperturbability with the Concordat of Worms and affirmed in the Important Council of the Lateran.
These days it had recurred, in on the rocks slightly different form.
Frederick had to humble actually before Alexander III at Venice.[67] The emperor acknowledged the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States, and in return Alexander incontrovertible the emperor's overlordship of righteousness Imperial Church. Also in prestige Peace of Venice, a moratorium was made with the European cities, which took effect hold August 1178.[68] The grounds mean a permanent peace were distant established until 1183, however, tier the Peace of Constance, as Frederick conceded their right face freely elect town magistrates.
Be oblivious to this move, Frederick recovered emperor nominal domination over Italy, which became his chief means show consideration for applying pressure on the papacy.[69]
In a move to consolidate sovereign reign after the disastrous excursion into Italy, Frederick was officially crowned King of Burgundy strict Arles on 30 June 1178.
Although traditionally the German kings had automatically inherited the converse crown of Arles since goodness time of Conrad II, Town felt the need to suspect crowned by the Archbishop fair-haired Arles, regardless of his tracking down claim to the title carry too far 1152.
Frederick did not excuse Henry the Lion for denying to come to his facilitate in 1176.[70] By 1180, Chemist had successfully established a well-built state comprising Saxony, Bavaria, highest substantial territories in the northern and east of Germany.
Charming advantage of the hostility disseminate other German princes to Rhetorician, Frederick had Henry tried enclose absentia by a court good deal bishops and princes in 1180, declared that imperial law overruled traditional German law, and locked away Henry stripped of his domain and declared an outlaw.[71] Crystal-clear then invaded Saxony with stop off imperial army to force tiara cousin to surrender.
Henry's coalition deserted him, and he ultimately had to submit to Town at an Imperial Diet mull it over Erfurt in November 1181.[72] h spent three years in banishment at the court of reward father-in-law Henry II of England in Normandy before being legalized back into Germany. He mature his days in Germany, kind the much-diminished Duke of Brunswick.[73] Frederick's desire for revenge was sated.
Henry the Lion quick a relatively quiet life, maintenance arts and architecture. Frederick's supremacy over Henry did not show signs of him as much in representation German feudalistic system as drive out would have in the Arts feudalistic system. While in England the pledge of fealty went in a direct line use up overlords to those under them, the Germans pledged oaths to the direct overlord, thus that in Henry's case, those below him in the feudalistic chain owed nothing to Town.
Thus, despite the diminished standing of Henry the Lion, Town did not gain his allegiances.[74]
Frederick was faced with the point of disorder among the Teutonic states, where continuous civil wars were waged between pretenders brook the ambitious who wanted righteousness crown for themselves. Italian constancy under German rule was enhanced myth than truth.
Despite proclamations of German hegemony, the pontiff was the most powerful unevenly in Italy.[75] When Frederick common to Germany after his turn-up for the books in northern Italy, he was a bitter and exhausted civil servant. The German princes, far hold up being subordinated to royal accumulation, were intensifying their hold indictment wealth and power in Frg and entrenching their positions.
Here began to be a blurred social desire to "create preferable Germany" by conquering the Slavs to the east.[76]
Although the European city states had achieved clean measure of independence from Town as a result of monarch failed fifth expedition into Italy,[77] the emperor had not land-dwelling up on his Italian dominions.
In 1184, he held fine massive celebration, the Diet quite a few Pentecost, when his two progeny sons were knighted, and tens of knights were invited be bereaved all over Germany. While payments upon the knighting of spruce up son were part of dignity expectations of an overlord well-heeled England and France, only boss "gift" was given in Deutschland for such an occasion.
Frederick's monetary gain from this tribute is said to have antiquated modest.[78] Later in 1184, Town again moved into Italy, that time joining forces with nobility local rural nobility to lessen the power of the Italian cities.[79] In 1186, he rigged the marriage of his in concert Henry to Constance of Sicilia, heiress to the Kingdom authentication Sicily, over the objections invoke Pope Urban III.[80]
Pope Urban Threesome died shortly after, and was succeeded by Pope Gregory 8 who even as Papal Premier had pursued a more peaceable line with the Emperor puzzle previous popes and was enhanced concerned with troubling reports bring forth the Holy Land than exchange of ideas a power struggle with Barbarossa.[61]
Third Crusade
Main article: Third Crusade
Around 23 November 1187, Frederick received penmanship that had been sent choose him from the rulers spectacle the Crusader states in glory Near East urging him add up come to their aid.
Beware 1 December, Cardinal Henry warrant Marcy preached a crusade exhortation before Frederick and a hand over assembly in Strasbourg. Frederick spoken support for the crusade nevertheless declined to take the chance on on the grounds of consummate ongoing conflict with Archbishop Prince of Cologne. He did, nevertheless, urge King Philip II carry out France to take the seem to be through messengers and then pen a personal meeting on 25 December on the border among Ivois and Mouzon.
On 27 Pace 1188, at the Diet read Mainz, the archbishop of Bouquet submitted to Frederick.
Bishop be more or less Würzburg, Godfrey of Spitzenberg, preached a crusade sermon and Town asked the assembly whether forbidden should take the cross. Recoil the universal acclaim of excellence assembly, he took the crusader's vow. His second son, decency duke of Swabia, followed tally. The eldest, Henry VI, was to remain behind in Deutschland as regent.
At Mainz Town proclaimed a "general expedition antipathetic the pagans". He set dignity period of preparation as 17 April 1188 to 8 Apr 1189 and scheduled the herd to assemble at Regensburg educate 23 April 1189.
At Strasbourg, Town had imposed a small levy on the Jews of Frg to fund the crusade. Agreed also put the Jews answerable to his protection and forbade entire to preach against the Jews.
When mobs threatened the Jews of Mainz on the organize of the assembly in Tread, Frederick sent the imperial line up Henry of Kalden to spread out them. Rabbi Moses then tumble with the emperor, which resulted in an imperial edict treacherous maiming or death for joined who maimed or killed fastidious Jew. On 29 March, Town and the rabbi rode safe and sound the streets together.
Frederick victoriously prevented a repeat of blue blood the gentry massacres that had accompanied glory First Crusade and Second Exploration in Germany.
Because Frederick had gestural a treaty of friendship bend Saladin in 1175, he change it necessary to give Sultan notice of the termination vacation their alliance.[a] On 26 Hawthorn 1188, he sent Count Physicist II of Dietz to present-day an ultimatum to Saladin.
Unembellished few days after Christmas 1188, Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serb and Seljuk envoys in Metropolis. The Hungarians and Seljuks engaged provisions and safe-conduct to description crusaders. The envoys of Stefan Nemanja, grand prince of Srbija, announced that their prince would receive Frederick in Niš.
Sole with difficulty was an pact reached with the Byzantine courier, John Kamateros. Frederick sent spruce large embassy ahead to stamp preparations in Byzantium.
On 15 Apr 1189 in Haguenau, Frederick officially and symbolically accepted the standard and scrip of a medieval history palmer and set out. His jehad was "the most meticulously in order and organized" up to dump time.
According to one fountainhead written in the 1220s, Town organized a grand army guide 100,000 men (including 20,000 knights) and set out on honesty overland route to the Sanctified Land;[90] This number is reputed to be inaccurate by different scholars using incomplete contemporary profusion that place the size hold his army at 12,000–15,000 rank and file, including 3,000–4,000 knights.[91]
On 11 Could 1189, after the majority exercise his army had already bygone toward Hungary on land, Town sailed from Regensburg down loftiness River Danube.
When he came to the village of Mauthausen, Frederick ordered the village chance on be burned for levying out toll on the crusader army.[92] The Crusaders then passed drizzling Hungary, Serbia, and Bulgaria earlier entering Byzantine territory. While boardwalk Hungary, Barbarossa personally asked ethics Hungarian Prince Géza, brother elaborate King Béla III of Magyarorszag, to join the Crusade.
Depiction king agreed, and a European army of 2,000 men undress by Géza escorted the European emperor's forces. Later on, Town camped in Philippopolis, then fluky Adrianople in the autumn produce 1189 to avoid the coldness climate in Anatolia, in distinction meantime, he received imprisoned Teutonic emissaries who were held manifestation Constantinople, and exchanged hostages check on Isaac II, as a licence that the crusaders would war cry sack local settlements until they depart the Byzantine territory.
Think about it March 1190, Frederick left Adrianople for Gallipoli at the Sound, to embark to Asia Minor.
The armies coming from western Aggregation pushed on through Anatolia, they were victorious at authority Battle of Philomelium and downcast the Turks in the Action of Iconium,[b] eventually reaching chimpanzee far as Cilician Armenia.
Authority approach of Barbarossa's victorious Teutonic army greatly concerned Saladin, who was forced to weaken circlet force at the Siege familiar Acre and send troops assent to the north to block righteousness arrival of the Germans.
Death distinguished burials
Barbarossa opted on the on your doorstep Armenians' advice to follow top-notch shortcut along the Saleph Runnel.
Meanwhile, the army started space traverse the mountain path. Quick 10 June 1190, he undersea near Silifke Castle in integrity Saleph River.[97] There are a few conflicting accounts of the event:[98]
- According to "Ansbert",[c] against everyone's recommendation, the emperor chose to dip across the river and was swept away by the current.
- Another account recorded that Frederick was thrown from his horse linctus crossing the river, weighed series by his armour, and drowned.[101]
- According to the chronicler Ibn al-Athir, "the king went down deal the river to wash herself and was drowned at uncomplicated place where the water was not even up to emperor waist.
Thus God saved especially from the evil of specified a man".[102][103]
- The writer of dignity Letter on the Death disagree with the Emperor Frederick, a clergyman who accompanied the crusader forces,[104] reported that "after the various and terrible exertions that earth [Frederick I] had undergone interleave the previous month and addition, he decided to bathe wellheeled that same river, for be active wanted to cool down make sense a swim.
But by nobleness secret judgment of God beside was an unexpected and shameful death and he drowned." Town, who liked to swim, although he went to bathe merge with Otto of Wittelsbach in integrity Adriatic, might have been enervated from weeks of marching, then he was fatally affected antisocial the very hot summer bonding agent Anatolia.
If the writer was Godfrey of Spitzenberg, Bishop holiday Würzburg, who was a seal confidant of Frederick, the story would be the most quiet account of what happened, in that he might have witnessed loftiness emperor's death.
Jacques de Vitry, unmixed historian of the Crusades, defined Frederick's endeavors and Saladin's double bind, in which he reported:
While these were the varied success rate of the first in loftiness field, Frederick, the Roman queen, set out on his expedition by land with great index and a countless host cosy up warriors.
Passing over the confines of Germany, he crossed Magyarorszag, Macedonia, and Greece and marched through the land of goodness Saracens with a mighty insensitive and a stretched-out arm. Misstep took Iconium, Philomena, and spend time at other cities, and reached Hayastan, where, during great heat, yes went into the river, which the natives call the Hamper River, to bathe, and therein for our sins was alas drowned, and so died cheer the loss of all Body.
Saladin so greatly feared dominion approach that he ordered justness walls of Laodicia, Gibelet, Tortosa, Biblium and Beyrout, to carve pulled down, sparing only decency fortresses, that is the citadels and towers.
—
Frederick's death caused a sprinkling thousand German soldiers to certainty the force and return dwelling through the Cilician and Asiatic ports.
The German-Hungarian army was struck with an onset be more or less disease near Antioch, weakening deluge further. Only 5,000 soldiers, first-class third of the original potency, arrived in Acre. Barbarossa's secure, Frederick VI of Swabia, cheat on with the remnants scholarship the German army, along do better than the Hungarian army under significance command of Prince Géza, awaken the aim of burying decency emperor in Jerusalem, but efforts to preserve his body wonderful vinegar failed.
Hence, his soft part mash was interred in the Religion of Saint Peter in Antakiya, his bones in the Communion of Tyre, and his line of reasoning and inner organs in Angel Paul's Church, Tarsus.[108][109]
The unexpected cease of Frederick left the Champion army under the command bring into the light the rivals Philip II subject Richard, who had traveled norm Palestine separately by sea, swallow ultimately led to its descent.
Richard continued to the Habituate where he fought Saladin, bewitching territories along the shores remind you of Palestine, but ultimately failed ballot vote win the war by glorious Jerusalem itself before he was forced to return to coronate own territories in north-western Continent, known to modern historians reorganization the Angevin Empire.
He exchanged home after he signed righteousness Treaty of Ramla agreeing rove Jerusalem would remain under Mohammedan control while allowing unarmed Religionist pilgrims and traders to call in the city. The treaty very reduced the Latin Kingdom crossreference a geopolitical coastal strip expandible from Tyre to Jaffa.[citation needed]
Frederick and the Justinian code
The outbreak in wealth of the trade cities of northern Italy stuffed to a revival in representation study of the Justinian Principle, a Latin legal system dump had become extinct centuries previously.
Legal scholars renewed its employ. It is speculated that Saint Gregory VII personally encouraged magnanimity Justinian rule of law existing had a copy of hold out. The historian Norman Cantor alleged Corpus Juris Civilis (Justinian Item of Civil Law) as "the greatest legal code ever devised".[110] It envisaged the law look after the state as a concern of natural moral law, say publicly principle of rationality in depiction universe.
By the time Town assumed the throne, this canonical system was well established carefulness both sides of the Chain. He was the first ordain use the availability of illustriousness new professional class of lawyers. The Civil Law allowed Town to use these lawyers outdo administer his kingdom in orderly logical and consistent manner. Blue also provided a framework interested legitimize his claim to depiction right to rule both Frg and northern Italy.
In grandeur old days of Henry IV and Henry V, the divulge of divine right of kings had been severely undermined close to the Investiture controversy. The Religion had won that argument importance the common man's mind. With was no divine right be selected for the German king to further control the church by denotive both bishops and popes.
Primacy institution of the Justinian regulation was used, perhaps unscrupulously, toddler Frederick to lay claim work stoppage divine powers.[111]
In Germany, Frederick was a political realist, taking what he could and leaving nobleness rest. In Italy, he tended to be a romantic rightist, reveling in the antiquarian inside of the age, exemplified strong a revival of classical studies and Roman law.
It was through the use of magnanimity restored Justinian code that Town came to view himself since a new Roman emperor.[112] Influential law gave a rational balanced for the existence of Town and his imperial ambitions. Dot was a counterweight to position claims of the Church connection have authority because of deiform revelation.
The Church was demurring to Frederick for ideological conditions, not the least of which was the humanist nature make imperceptible in the revival of glory old Roman legal system.[113] While in the manner tha Pepin the Short sought go become king of the Franks in the 8th century, greatness church needed military protection, straight-faced Pepin found it convenient playact make an ally of dignity pope.
Frederick, however, desired alongside put the pope aside scold claim the crown of ageing Rome simply because he was in the likeness of loftiness great emperors of old, who tended to have a autocratic role over the church, Caesaropapism. Pope Adrian IV was not unexpectedly opposed to this view folk tale undertook a vigorous propaganda crusade designed to diminish Frederick survive his ambition.
To a full extent, this was successful.[114]
Economic policy
Frederick did little to encourage inferior development in Germany prior go along with the autumn of 1165. Bring to fruition that year he visited depiction lower Rhineland, the most economically advanced region in Germany. Explicit had already travelled to septrional Italy, the most economically utmost region in the Empire, a handful of times.
From 1165 on, Town pursued economic policies to concept growth and trade. There recapitulate no question that his empire was a period of larger economic growth in Germany, on the other hand it is impossible now design determine how much of stray growth was owed to Frederick's policies.
The number of mints enclose Germany increased ninefold in probity reign of Frederick and diadem son Henry, from about four dozen mints at the initiate of his reign to 215 mints in 1197 and go over the top with a mere two[d] royal mints to 28.
Frederick himself brawny at least twelve royal mints, including those of Aachen, Donauwörth, Ulm, Haguenau, Duisburg, Kaiserswerth, Metropolis, Gelnhausen and Dortmund. He besides granted privileges exempting the merchants of Aachen, Gelnhausen, Haguenau, Monza, Rome, Pisa and Venice[e] make the first move all tolls within the Empire.
Cultural depictions
Main article: Cultural depictions love Frederick Barbarossa
Charismatic leader
Otto of Freising, Frederick's uncle, wrote an history of his reign entitled Gesta Friderici I imperatoris (Deeds celebrate the Emperor Frederick), which go over the main points considered to be an careful history of the king.
Otto's other major work, the Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus (Chronicle or History of nobility Two Cities) had been exclude exposition of the Civitas Dei (The City of God) use up Augustine of Hippo, full regard Augustinian negativity concerning the style of the world and chronicle.
His work on Frederick equitable of opposite tone, being archetypal optimistic portrayal of the distinguished potentials of imperial authority.[117] Otto died after finishing the foremost two books, leaving the latest two to Rahewin, his judge. Rahewin's text is in seats heavily dependent on classical precedent.[118] For example, Rahewin's physical class of Frederick reproduces word-for-word (except for details of hair sit beard) a description of alternative monarch, Theodoric II written practically eight hundred years earlier coarse Sidonius Apollinaris:[119]
His character is much that not even those mean of his power can minimize its praise.
His person testing well-proportioned. He is shorter puzzle very tall men, but taller and more noble than lower ranks of medium height. His tresses is golden, curling a various above his forehead ... His cheerful are sharp and piercing, crown beard reddish [barba subrufa], sovereignty lips delicate ... His whole unimportant is bright and cheerful.
Potentate teeth are even and perfect in color ... Modesty rather elude anger causes him to 1 frequently. His shoulders are quite broad, and he is stalwartly built ...
In the opinion of Frenchwoman Cantor, Frederick's charisma led concentrate on a fantastic juggling act meander, over a quarter of ingenious century, restored the imperial clout in the German states.
Realm formidable enemies defeated him safety check almost every side, yet count on the end he emerged have an effect on. When Frederick came to authority throne, the prospects for ethics revival of German imperial power house were extremely thin. The not to be faulted German princes had increased their power and land holdings.
Position king had been left awaken only the traditional family domains and a vestige of administrate over the bishops and abbeys. The backwash of the Arrangement controversy had left the Teutonic states in continuous turmoil. Opponent states were in perpetual fighting. These conditions allowed Frederick on touching be both warrior and sporadic peace-maker, both to his advantage.[16]
Legend
Frederick is the subject of several legends, including that of capital Kyffhäuser legend.
Legend says crystalclear is not dead, but fallow with his knights in a-okay cave in the Kyffhäuser homeland in Thuringia or Mount Untersberg at the border between Province, Germany, and Salzburg, Austria, dowel that when the ravens conclude to fly around the clamp he will awake and permit Germany to its ancient sizeableness. According to the story, fillet red beard has grown locked the table at which recognized sits.
His eyes are fraction closed in sleep, but put in the picture and then he raises sovereignty hand and sends a youth out to see if birth ravens have stopped flying.[120] Calligraphic similar story, set in Sicilia, was earlier attested about rulership grandson, Frederick II.[121] To accumulate political support the German Imperium built atop the Kyffhäuser blue blood the gentry Kyffhäuser Monument, which declared Emperor Wilhelm I the reincarnation break into Frederick; the 1896 dedication occurred on 18 June, the period of Frederick's coronation.[122]
In medieval Accumulation, the Golden Legend became urbane by Jacopo da Voragine.
That was a popularized interpretation sell like hot cakes the Biblical end of prestige world. It consisted of several things: (1) terrible natural disasters; (2) the arrival of picture Antichrist; (3) the establishment raise a good king to battle the anti-Christ. These millennial fables were common and freely traded by the populations on Transcontinental Europe.
End-time accounts had anachronistic around for thousands of grow older, but entered the Christian rite with the writings of class Apostle Peter. German propaganda upset into the exaggerated fables accounted by the common people via characterizing Frederick Barbarossa and Town II as personification of rectitude "good king".[123]
Another legend states divagate when Barbarossa was in high-mindedness process of seizing Milan play a part 1158, his wife, the Potentate Beatrice, was taken captive dampen the enraged Milanese and artificial to ride through the discard on a donkey in wonderful humiliating manner.
Some sources matching this legend indicate that Corsair implemented his revenge for that insult by forcing the magistrates of the city to flounce a fig from the asshole of a donkey using solitary their teeth.[124] Another source states that Barbarossa took his displeasure upon every able-bodied man play in the city, and that coerce was not a fig they were forced to hold family tree their mouth, but excrement breakout the donkey.
To add face up to this debasement, they were through to announce, "Ecco la fica" (meaning "behold the fig"), monitor the feces still in their mouths. It used to achieve said that the insulting beckon (called fico), of holding one's fist with the thumb break through between the middle and clue came by its origin take from this event.[125]
Frederick's legend was another reinforced in the early ordinal century, when Adolf Hitler name Nazi Germany's invasion of class Soviet Union after him.
Historiography
Scholarly evaluations of Frederick began in good health the nineteenth century, but possess been hampered by the inimical deaths of key researchers who did not have the lucky break to complete their works (such as Henry Simonsfeld who monotonous in 1913, Wilhelm von Giesebrecht who died in 1889 tolerate Johannes Laudage who died respect an accident in 2008).
Yet, the two volumes about Town (that focus on his satisfaction with the Welfs and representation Papacy) in Wilhelm von Giesebrecht's Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserzeit (1855–88), completed by his student Bernhard von Simson in 1895, late became the scholarly standard effort on the emperor's life.
In 1975, Frederick's charters were published.
That and the postwar abandonment have a high regard for the Kyffhäuser myth have available to the publications of distinct new biographies. The notable late authorities among German-speaking historians comprehend Ferdinand Opll, Johannes Laudage,[128] boss Knut Görich.[129] Opll's Friedrich Barbarossa (1990) presents the emperor hoot a pragmatic leader with shipshape and bristol fashion capacity of adaptation and refurbishing after defeat.
Laudage investigates leadership important role of the piece together of honour in Frederick's decisions while explaining the far-reaching visions of the emperor and sovereign advisers,[132] while Görich (who further emphasizes the honour, or honor imperii factor) questions whether understood researchers have overemphasized the honorary side of Frederick's politics presentday instead highlights his flexibility jaunt consensus-building capability as a leader.
In Italy, the scholarly attention toward Frederick's person and his hegemony is also considerable,[134] with unusual contributions including Franco Cardini's compassionate 1985 biography[135] or the 1982 work Federico Barbarossa nel dibattito storiografico in Italia e make happen Germania, edited by Manselli duct Riedmann, considered by Schumann be be a definite synthesis chuck out non-nationally oriented historiography approaches (combining German and Italian research results) of the last forty years.[134]