Biography of pineapples

Species of flowering plant in picture family Bromeliaceae

For other uses, honor Pineapple (disambiguation).

"Red Pineapple" redirects wisdom. For the apple cultivar, observe Red Pineapple (apple).

Pineapple
A pineapple on sheltered parent plant
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Monocots
Clade:	Commelinids
Order:	Poales
Family:	Bromeliaceae
Genus:	Ananas
Species:	A. comosus
Binomial name
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.
Synonyms[1]
List Ananas acostaeC. Commelijn Ananas ananas(L.) former Voss nom. inval. Ananas argentata tough Schult. & Schult.f. Ananas aurata register Schult. & Schult.f. Ananas bracteatusBaker Ananas coccineusDescourt. Ananas debilisSchult. & Schult.f. Ananas lyman-smithiiCamargo nom. inval. Ananas maximaSchult. & Schult.f. Ananas monstrosus(Carrière) Ananas ovatusMill. Ananas pancheanusAndré Ananas penangensisBaker Ananas porteanusVeitch ex Ananas pyramidalisMill. Ananas sativaLindl. Ananas sativusSchult. & Schult.f. Ananas serotinusMill. Ananas viridisMill. Ananassa ananas(L.) Ananassa debilisLindl. Ananassa monstrosaCarrière Ananassa porteana(Veitch once ) Carrière Ananassa sativa(Schult. & Schult.f.) Lindl. ex Beer Bromelia ananasL. Bromelia ananasWilld. Bromelia communisLam. Bromelia comosaL. Bromelia edulisSalisb. nom. illeg. Bromelia mai-pouriPerrier Bromelia pignaPerrier Bromelia rubraSchult. & Schult.f. Bromelia violaceaSchult. & Schult.f. Bromelia viridis(Mill.) Schult. & Schult.f. Distiacanthus communis(Lam.) Rojas Acosta

The pineapple^[2][3] (Ananas comosus) is fine tropical plant with an palatable fruit; it is the nigh economically significant plant in magnanimity family Bromeliaceae.^[4]

The pineapple is feral to South America, where essential parts has been cultivated for diverse centuries.

The introduction of honourableness pineapple plant to Europe train in the 17th century made manifestation a significant cultural icon win luxury. Since the 1820s, herb has been commercially grown hurt greenhouses and many tropical plantations.

Pineapples grow as a brief shrub; the individual flowers confess the unpollinated plant fuse ingratiate yourself with form a multiple fruit.

Honesty plant normally propagates from rectitude offset produced at the comfort of the fruit^[2][5] or stick up a side shoot, and regularly matures within a year.^[5][6]

Description

The herb is a herbaceousperennial, which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 m (3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 11 in) mature on average, although sometimes vicious circle can be taller.

The buy and sell has a short, stocky shoot with tough, waxy leaves. What because creating its fruit, it customarily produces up to 200 floret, although some large-fruited cultivars gather together exceed this. Once it floret, the individual fruits of excellence flowers join together to turn out a multiple fruit. After honourableness first fruit is produced, lateral shoots (called 'suckers' by profitable growers) are produced in high-mindedness leaf axils of the persist in stem.

These suckers may adjust removed for propagation, or formerly larboard to produce additional fruits realistic the original plant.^[5] Commercially, suckers that appear around the aid are cultivated. It has 30 or more narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves that are 30 equal 100 cm (1 to 3+1⁄2 ft) chug away, surrounding a thick stem; class leaves have sharp spines hit it off the margins.

In the greatest year of growth, the bloc lengthens and thickens, bearing legion leaves in close spirals. Associate 12 to 20 months, ethics stem grows into a spike-like inflorescence up to 15 cm (6 in) long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers, each subtended by a bract.

In prestige wild, pineapples are pollinated generally by hummingbirds.^[2][7] Certain wild pineapples are foraged and pollinated efficient night by bats.^[8] Under finish, because seed development diminishes event quality, pollination is performed unhelpful hand, and seeds are spoken for only for breeding.^[2] In Island, where pineapples were cultivated put forward canned industrially throughout the Ordinal century,^[9] importation of hummingbirds was prohibited.^[10]

The ovaries develop into berries, which coalesce into a substantial, compact, multiple fruit.

The development of a pineapple is by and large arranged in two interlocking helices, often with 8 in single direction and 13 in integrity other, each being a Fibonacci number.^[11]

The pineapple carries out Fraud photosynthesis,^[12] fixing carbon dioxide take up night and storing it although the acid malate, then let go it during the day cooperative photosynthesis.

Taxonomy

The pineapple comprises fivesome botanical varieties, formerly regarded on account of separate species.^[13] The genomes range three varieties, including the unbroken progenitor variety bracteatus, have anachronistic sequenced.^[14]

Image	Varieties	Distribution
	Ananas comosus var. bracteatus() Coppens &	Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Ecuador
	Ananas comosus var. comosus(Linnaeus) Merrill	Brazil and Paraguay; external in parts of Asia, Continent, Australia, Mexico, Central America, integrity West Indies, northern South U.s., and various islands in class Pacific
	Ananas comosus var. erectifolius() Coppens &	Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, northern Brazil, French Guiana
	Ananas comosus var. microstachys(Mez)	from Costa Rica to Paraguay
Ananas comosus var. parguazensis(Camargo & ) Coppens &	Colombia, Venezuela, arctic Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana

History

Etymology

The first reference in English make haste the pineapple fruit was say publicly 1568 translation from the Gallic of André Thevet's The Fresh Found World, or Antarctike pivot he refers to a Hoyriri, a fruit cultivated and ragged by the Tupinambá people, cartoon near modern Rio de Janeiro, and now believed to make ends meet a pineapple.^[15] Later in decency same English translation, he describes the same fruit as elegant "Nana made in the comport yourself of a Pine apple", wheel he used another Tupi huddle nanas, meaning 'excellent fruit'.^[16] That usage was adopted by various European languages and led disdain the plant's scientific binomialAnanas comosus, where comosus 'tufted' refers like the stem of the most important part.

Purchas, writing in English nondescript 1613, referred to the development as Ananas, but the Oxford English Dictionary's first record imbursement the word pineapple itself building block an English writer is give up Mandeville in 1714.^[17]

Precolonial cultivation

The savage plant originates from the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages between southern Brasil and Paraguay.^{[2][18][19][20]} Little is cloak about its domestication, but score spread as a crop in every part of South America.

Archaeological evidence clutch use is found as far-away back as 1200–800 BC (3200–2800 BP) in Peru^[21] and Cardinal BC – 700 AD (2200–1300 BP) in Mexico,^[22] where enter was cultivated by the Mayas and the Aztecs.^[23] By probity late 1400s, cropped pineapple was widely distributed and a sample food of Native Americans.

Righteousness first European to encounter position pineapple was Christopher Columbus, put in the bank Guadeloupe on 4 November 1493.^[24][25] The Portuguese took the harvest from Brazil and introduced flux into India by 1550.^[26] Authority 'Red Spanish [es]' cultivar was further introduced by the Spanish evacuate Latin America to the Country, and it was grown willing produce piña fibers that would then be used to develop textiles from at least primacy 17th century.^[27]

Columbus brought the essence back to Spain and dubbed it piña de Indes, signification "pine of the Indians".

Glory pineapple was documented in Putz Martyr's Decades of the New-found World (1516) and Antonio Pigafetta's Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo (1524–1525), and righteousness first known illustration was propitious Oviedo'sHistoria General de Las Indias (1535).^[28]

Old World introduction

While the herb fascinated Europeans as a production of colonialism,^[29] it was mass successfully cultivated in Europe forthcoming Pieter de la Court (1664–1739) developed greenhouse horticulture near Leiden.^[30][25] Pineapple plants were distributed evade the Netherlands to English gardeners in 1719 and French bend in 1730.^[25] In England, illustriousness first pineapple was grown take up Dorney Court, Dorney in Buckinghamshire, and a huge "pineapple stove" to heat the plants was built at the Chelsea Relief Garden in 1723.^[31][32] In Writer, King Louis XV was be on fire with a pineapple that difficult to understand been grown at Versailles layer 1733.

In Russia, Peter primacy Great imported de la Court's method into St. Petersburg thwart the 1720s; in 1730, greenback pineapple saplings were transported chomp through there to a greenhouse jaws Empress Anna's new Moscow palace.^[33][34]

Because of the expense of ancient import and the enormous proportion in equipment and labour bind to grow them in neat as a pin temperate climate, in greenhouses denominated "pineries", pineapple became a representation of wealth.

They were firstly used mainly for display delay dinner parties, rather than essence eaten, and were used another time and again until they began to rot. In the alternate half of the 18th 100, the production of the yield on British estates became leadership subject of great rivalry betwixt wealthy Murray, 4th Earl remind you of Dunmore, built a hothouse attempt his estate surmounted by elegant huge stone cupola 14 metres tall in the shape a number of the fruit; it is name as the Dunmore Pineapple.^[37] Mosquito architecture, pineapple figures became ornamental elements symbolizing hospitality.^[38][39][40]

Since the Ordinal century: mass commercialization

Many different varieties, mostly from the Antilles, were tried for European glasshouse upbringing.

The most significant cultivar was "Smooth Cayenne", first imported crossreference France in 1820, then in a few words re-exported to the United Country in 1835, and then vary UK, the cultivation spread during Hawaii to Australia and Continent. The "Smooth Cayenne" cultivar (and sub-selections or clones of character "Smooth Cayenne") make up care for the majority of world ananas production today.^[25] Jams and candy based on pineapple were external to Europe from the Westside Indies, Brazil, and Mexico dismiss an early date.

By loftiness early 19th century, fresh pineapples were transported direct from loftiness West Indies in large close quantities to reduce European prices.^[25] Later pineapple production was haunted by the Azores for Continent, and Florida and the Sea for North America, because manipulate the short trade routes.

The Spanish had introduced the ananas into Hawaii in the Eighteenth century^[41] where it is minor as the hala kahiki ("foreign hala"),^[42][43] but the first advertizement plantation was established in 1886. The most famous investor was James Dole, who moved in all directions Hawaii in 1899^[44] and begun a 24-hectare (60-acre) pineapple farm in 1900 which would enlarge into the Dole Food Company.^[45] Dole and Del Monte began growing pineapples on the key of Oahu in 1901 endure 1917, respectively, and the Island Pineapple Company began cultivation formulate Maui in 1909.^[46] James Lot began the commercial processing detect pineapple, and Dole employee Physicist Ginaca invented an automatic desquamation and coring machine in 1911.^[25]

Hawaiian production started to decline evade the 1970s because of go fast and the shift to refrigerated sea transport.

Dole ceased cast down cannery operations in Honolulu extract 1991, and in 2008, Draw Monte terminated its pineapple-growing operation in Hawaii.^[47] In 2009, decency Maui Pineapple Company reduced secure operations to supply pineapples sui generis incomparabl locally on Maui,^[48] and overstep 2013, only the Dole Woodlet on Oahu grew pineapples bring off a volume of about 0.1 percent of the world's production.^[47] Despite this decline, the ananas is sometimes used as copperplate symbol of Hawaii.^[49][50] Further, foods with pineapple in them attend to sometimes known as "Hawaiian" care for this reason alone.

In nobleness Philippines, "Smooth Cayenne" was naturalized in the early 1900s bypass the US Bureau of Tillage careful managem during the American colonial turn. Dole and Del Monte customary plantations in the island weekend away Mindanao in the 1920s; move the provinces of Cotabato turf Bukidnon, respectively.^[27][51] Large scale canning had started in Southeast Assemblage, including in the Philippines, vary 1920.

This trade was strictly damaged by World War II, and Hawaii dominated the ubiquitous trade until the 1960s.

The Philippines remain one of righteousness top exporters of pineapples twist the world. The Del Cards plantations are now locally managed, after Del Monte Pacific Ld., a Filipino company, completed representation purchase of Del Monte Foods in 2014.^[52]

Composition

Nutrition

Raw pineapple pulp in your right mind 86% water, 13% carbohydrates, 0.5% protein, and contains negligible round (table).

In a 100-gram specification amount, raw pineapple supplies 209 kilojoules (50 kilocalories) of refreshment energy, and is a welltodo source of manganese (40% Commonplace Value, DV) and vitamin Apothegm (53% DV), but otherwise contains no micronutrients in significant galore (table).

Phytochemistry

Pineapple fruits and peels contain diverse phytochemicals, among which are polyphenols, including gallic well-defined, syringic acid, vanillin, ferulic dot, sinapic acid, coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, and arbutin.^[55][56]

Present put back all parts of the ananas plant,^[57]bromelain is a mixture snare proteolyticenzymes.

It is present bolster stem, fruit, crown, core, leaves of pineapple itself.^[58] Bromelain anticipation under preliminary research for employment of a variety of clinical disorders, but has not anachronistic adequately defined for its object in the human body.^[59] Bromelain may be unsafe for unkind users, such as in gravidity, allergies, or anticoagulation therapy.^[59]

Having skimpy bromelain content, raw pineapple drink may be useful as span meat marinade and tenderizer.^[60] Notwithstanding pineapple enzymes can interfere twig the preparation of some foods or manufactured products, such owing to gelatin-based desserts or gelcapsules,^[61] their proteolytic activity responsible for specified properties may be degraded lasting cooking and canning.

The chunk of bromelain in a exemplary serving of pineapple fruit enquiry probably not significant, but explicit extraction can yield sufficient luck for domestic and industrial processing.^[60][62]

Varieties

Cultivars

Many cultivars are known.^[2] The leaves of the commonly grown "Smooth Cayenne" cultivar and its distinct clones are smooth,^[63] and outdo is the most commonly full-blown worldwide.

Many cultivars have evolve into distributed from its origins entertain Paraguay and the southern item of Brazil, and later larger stocks were introduced into greatness Americas, the Azores, Africa, Bharat, Malaysia and Australia.^[2] Varieties include:^{[citation needed]}

• "Hilo" is a compact, 1.0- to 1.5-kg (2– to 3-lb) Hawaiian variant of smooth cayenne; the fruit is more circular and produces many suckers, on the other hand no slips.
• "Kona sugarloaf", at 2.5 to 3.0 kg (5–6 lb), has chalkwhite flesh with no woodiness hobble the center, is cylindrical twist shape, and has a pump up session sugar content but no acid; it has an unusually overly sentimental fruit.
• "Natal queen", at 1.0 hard by 1.5 kg (2 to 3 lb), has golden yellow flesh, crisp tissue, and delicate mild flavor; well-adapted to fresh consumption, it keeps well after ripening.

  It has spiny leaves and is grown-up in Australia, Malaysia, and Southbound Africa.

• "Pernambuco" ("eleuthera") weighs 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), and has pale yellow acknowledge white flesh. It is honeyed, melting in texture, and estimable for eating fresh; it go over the main points poorly adapted for shipping, has spiny leaves, and is grownup in Latin America.
• "Red Spanish", battle 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), has pale cowardly flesh with a pleasant whiff, is squarish in shape, challenging well-adapted for shipping as contemporary fruit to distant markets; bubbly has spiny leaves and testing grown in Latin America instruction the Philippines.

  It was blue blood the gentry original pineapple cultivar in significance Philippines grown for their event fibers (piña) in the vocal Philippine textile industry.^[27][51]

• "Smooth cayenne", well-ordered 2.5- to 3.0-kg (5- undertake 6-lb), pale yellow– to yellow-fleshed, cylindrical fruit with high dulcify and acid content, is well-adapted to canning and processing; sheltered leaves are without spines.

  Even is an ancient cultivar industrial by Amerind peoples.^[64] In wearisome parts of Asia, this cultivar is known as Sarawak, rear 1 an area of Malaysia speck which it is grown.^[65] On your toes is one of the descent of cultivars "73-50" (also named "MD-1" and "CO-2") and "73–114" (also called "MD-2").^[64] Smooth chile was previously the variety put one\'s hands in Hawaii, and the uttermost easily obtainable in U.S.

  market stores, but was replaced retrieve the course of the mid-1990s and 2000s by MD-2.^[64] Significance success of Del Monte's MD-2 caused Dole to obtain & grow its own MD-2 pineapples, leading to Del Monte Most recent Produce Co. v. Dole Foodstuffs Co..

• Some Ananas species are fullgrown as ornamentals for color, chronicle fruit size, and other exquisite qualities.

In the US, in 1986, the Pineapple Research Institute was dissolved and its assets bicameral between Del Monte and Island Land and Pineapple.

Del Cards took cultivar '73–114', dubbed 'MD-2', to its plantations in Bone Rica, found it to continue well-suited to growing there, standing launched it publicly in 1996 as 'Gold Extra Sweet', spell Del Monte also began promotion '73–50', dubbed 'CO-2', as 'Del Monte Gold'.^[64] The Maui Ananas Company began growing variety 73-50 in 1988 and named whack Maui Gold.^[66] The successor concert party to MPC, the Hali'imaile Herb Company continues to grow Island Gold on the slopes accomplish Haleakala.

• Growing pineapples in trim greenhouse

• Red pineapple (Ananas bracteatus)

• Tropical Gold

• Victoria

Production

See also: List of countries mass pineapple production

In 2022, world struggle of pineapples was 29 trillion tonnes, led by Indonesia, blue blood the gentry Philippines, and Costa Rica, babble on producing about 3 million tonnes.^[67]

Uses

Culinary

The flesh and juice of description pineapple are used in cuisines around the world.

In uncountable tropical countries, pineapple is film set and sold on roadsides variety a snack. It is oversubscribed whole or in halves accurate a stick inserted. Whole, cored slices with a cherry mud the middle are a regular garnish on hams in description West. Chunks of pineapple move back and forth used in desserts such whereas fruit salad, as well whereas in some savory dishes, plus the Hawaiian pizza, or although a grilled ring on a-ok hamburger.

Traditional dishes that sign over pineapple include hamonado, afritada, kaeng som pla, and Hawaiian rick. Crushed pineapple is used overfull yogurt, jam, sweets, and hit cream. The juice of loftiness pineapple is served as elegant beverage, and it is too the main ingredient in cocktails such as the piña colada and in the drink tepache.

In the Philippines, a agreed jelly-like dessert called nata fundraiser piña has also been drop since the 18th century. Rap is made by fermenting herb juice with the bacteria Komagataeibacter xylinus.^[68]

Pineapple vinegar is an share found in both Honduran captain Filipino cuisine, where it high opinion produced locally.^[69] In Mexico, creativity is usually made with peels from the whole fruit, to some extent than the juice; however, bundle Taiwanese cuisine, it is much produced by blending pineapple fluid with grain vinegar.^[70][71]

The European Unification consumed 50% of the without limit total for pineapple juice distort 2012–2016.

The Netherlands was say publicly largest importer of pineapple drink in Europe. Thailand, Costa Rica and the Netherlands are ethics major suppliers to the Continent Union market in 2012–2016.^[72] Countries consuming the most pineapple spirits in 2017 were Thailand, State and the Philippines, having amassed consumption of 47% of grandeur world total.

The consumption endlessly pineapple juice in China enthralled India is low compared visit their populations.^[73]

Textiles

Main article: Piña

The 'Red Spanish' cultivar of pineapples were once extensively cultivated in honesty Philippines. The long leaves round the cultivar were the spring of traditional piña fibers, disentangle adaptation of the native weaving traditions with fibers extracted be bereaved abacá.

These were woven pay for lustrous lace-like nipis fabrics generally decorated with intricate floral ornateness known as calado and sombrado. The fabric was a extravagance export from the Philippines fabric the Spanish colonial period forward gained favor among European peers in the 18th and Ordinal centuries.

Domestically, they were castoff to make the traditional barong tagalog, baro't saya, and traje de mestiza clothing of grandeur Filipino upper class, as be successful as women's kerchiefs (pañuelo).

Biography martin

They were blessed for their light and genial quality, which was ideal infiltrate the hot tropical climate show the islands. The industry was destroyed in the Second False War and is only native to be revived.^[27][51][74]

Houseplant

The variety A.

comosus 'Variegatus' is occasionally matured as a houseplant. It essentials direct sunlight and thrives enthral temperatures of 18 to 24 °C (64 to 75 °F), with span minimum winter temperature of 16 °C (61 °F). It should be aloof humid, but the soil be allowed to dry presidency between waterings. It has apparently no resting period but be required to be repotted each spring up in the air the container reaches 20 centimeters (8 in).^[75]

Cultivation

In commercial farming, flowering focus on be induced artificially, and authority early harvesting of the basic fruit can encourage the incident of a second crop pleasant smaller fruits.

Once removed midst cleaning, the top of primacy pineapple can be planted compile soil and a new essential part will grow. Slips and suckers are planted commercially.^[2]

Storage and transport

Some buyers prefer green fruit, remainder ripened or off-green. A essential part growth regulator, Ethephon, is regularly sprayed onto the fruit hold up week before harvest, developing gas, which turns the fruit yellowish yellow.

After cleaning and fade, a pineapple is typically transcribed in sugar syrup with add-on preservative.^[2] A pineapple never becomes any riper than it was when harvested since it in your right mind a non-climacteric fruit.^[76][77]

Ethical and environmental concerns

Like most modern fruit work hard, pineapple plantations are highly industrialised operations.

In Costa Rica addon, the pineapple industry uses substantial amounts of insecticides to defend the crop, which have caused health problems in many organization. These workers often receive about compensation, and are mostly defective migrants, often Nicaraguan. Workers' rate also decrease every time prices are lowered overseas. In 2016, the government declared that out of use would be trying to instruct the situation, with the compliant of various other groups.^[78]

Historically, allegorical fruit agriculture, such as cooperation pineapples, has been concentrated unfailingly so-called "banana republics".^[79][80]

Illegal drug trade

Export pineapples from Costa Rica wish Europe are often used kind a cover for narcotrafficking, refuse containers are impounded routinely be sure about both locations.^[81]

Expansion into protected areas

In Costa Rica, pineapple cultivation has expanded into the Maquenque, Corredor Fronterizo, Barra del Colorado station Caño Negro wildlife refuges, describe located in the north friendly the country.

As those representative protected areas and not governmental parks, limited and restricted bearable activities are allowed, however ananas plantations are industrial operations extract many of these do quite a distance have the proper license revert to operate in the protected areas, or were started before either the designation of the leg, recent regulations or the making of the environmental regulatory action (Setena) in 1996.

The company has registers for around 358.5 ha (1.384 sq mi) of pineapple plantations shimmer within protected areas, but hanger-on imagery from 2018 reports family 1,659 ha (6.41 sq mi).^[82]

Pests and diseases

Main article: List of pineapple diseases

Pineapples increase in value subject to a variety tactic diseases, the most serious trip which is wilt disease vectored by mealybugs^[83] typically found financial credit the surface of pineapples, however possibly in the closed cream cups.^[2] Other diseases include citrus pink disease, bacterial heart stagnate, anthracnose,^[83] fungal heart rot, seat rot, black rot, butt fester, fruitlet core rot, and cowardly spot virus.^[84] Pineapple pink condition (not citrus pink disease) commission characterized by the fruit nonindustrial a brownish to black ruin when heated during the canning process.

The causal agents center pink disease are the bugs Acetobacter aceti, Gluconobacter oxydans, Pantoea citrea^[85][86] and Tatumella ptyseos.^[87][88]

Some pests that commonly affect pineapple plants are scales, thrips, mites, mealybugs, ants, and symphylids.^[84]

Heart-rot is picture most serious disease affecting herb plants.

The disease is caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi and P. parasitica, fungi that often persecute pineapples grown in wet attachment. Since it is difficult on top of treat, it is advisable strut guard against infection by cultivation resistant cultivars where these build available; all suckers that representative required for propagation should give somebody the job of dipped in a fungicide, owing to the fungus enters through prestige wounds.^[89]

See also

References